For the death of someone so dear...

For you & your mother


In Buddhism,
death is a seamless link to a fresh new life.
For life and death are one,
just as the river must flow into the sea.
She does not actually die,
she only flies to a new realm of consciousness,
for the refreshment of her soul,
back to the home of her spirit.
Thus death is not the last sleep,
it is the new awakening.
Look up the sky, you will see a new star,
that is she, smiling and watching over you.
When she had lived such a pure life then nothing can destroy her.

She that you love so deeply, had never really left you,
she is with you all the time, in soul and spirit.
The love deep in your heart that stirs, flutters in hers.
When you cry, she knows.
When you smile, she feels consoled.


I know surely
you and your mother will meet again
beyond the clouds, beyond the rainbows
in some distant land,
you will recognise her,
as both your hearts beat as one.
She is just going there first
to prepare a fresh new path
for you and her,
in a wondrous magical land.


cheryl yow
11 January 2011


dedicated to Isabel, Anjana and those who have lost someone so dear...

The 'Popular' versus 'High literature'

                                                             Rebecca

Jane Eyre

Allen Ginsberg

"Poetry is not an expression of the party line.

It's that time of night, lying in bed,

thinking what you really think,

making the private world public,

that's what the poet does."

"The only thing that can save the world

 is the reclaiming of the awareness of the world.

That's what poetry does."

"Nobody saves America by sniffing cocaine,

jiggling your knees blankly in the rain,

when it snows in your nose you catch cold in your brain."

Question:

The ‘popular’ is a site of ideological struggle between resistant
subordinate groups/culture in society and the dominant groups
/culture who perpetually endeavour to incorporate them”
(Johnson 54). To what extent do you find his definition
appropriate when analysing Rebecca and the poetry of
Ginsberg?


The ‘Popular’ text as Dwight Macdonald asserts “is like
chewing gum”, lacking in literary value; it caters to the lowest
sense of contentment for the common people of the mass
culture. Modernists assert that ‘serious’ literature: an art for
radical use, should be avant-garde, constantly reinventing
itself, catering only to a small discerning audience. Thus, in
brief, ‘Popular’ is: trivial, formulaic, repetitive, uninventive,
exploitative, devoid of aesthetic value, distinctive from the
great literature of the past and catering to the middle-class,
philistines and the mass.Value-judgments: aesthetic, social
and politics in literature are infamously wavering so no
literary work is innately valuable in itself. The literary
canon is a construct by specific people for specific purpose
at a specific time frame. The ‘popular’ Rebecca is not merely
a replica of the canonical Jane Eyre; only acute, discerning
critics are enlightened to its theoretical readings of identity,
class and gender and Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalysis and
Ginsberg’s poetry is not merely ‘popular'. It serves to
revitalize old rigid conventional poetry and to shout out the
soul of his society.



Rebecca defies the rigid definition of ‘popular’- the fact it is
considered merely a gothic romance. Its fairytale setting comes
with a twist; it hints at the nightmare perversion of the orderly
domestic setting. Additionally, upon close examination,
Rebecca reveals theoretical readings of contemporary critics:
identity, class and gender. It also is uncannily suggestive of
Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalysis: the development of female
sexuality. Its mixed genres: romance, murder, historical
/cultural studies and psychology challenge the inflexible
boundary between ‘High’ and ‘popular’ literature.


From the historically specific perspective, Rebecca could have
engaged in the anxiety of its time: identity, class and gender.
The moment the nameless narrator steps into her new home,
she abandons her own name and takes on a new title of de
winters, yet she is constantly struggling with an invisible
identity. Marriage renders the effacement of women’s
individual identity. Class issues are also depicted by the
disparity in age, wealth and class of the narrator’s marriage
and gender roles are closely aligned with class struggle.
Maxim and Manderley that represent perfect domesticity are
seen as warped and rootless. The promiscuous Rebecca and
the infertility of her malformed cancerous uterus depicts her
as an antithesis of a proper womanhood: being married,
monotonous and child-bearing. The murder of Rebecca and
her unproductive female sexuality has reduced the upper class
Manderley into a warped representation of conventional
domesticity. The fact that Manderley is eventually destroyed,
this could endorse the victory of the middle class. Thus the
text could be seen as shaking up and reinventing one’s role in
the social structure. The focus of class consciousness, the
decaying façade of aristocratic power and the renegotiating
of perceived power relations between the classes is highly
evident in its text.



The first chapter of Rebecca is deftly crafted in a dream, in line
with Freud’s dream theory:A dream is a disguised fulfilment
of a repressed wish. The ingenious option of first person
nameless narrator, invites the reader into the surreal world
of her complex subconscious: the blurring of fantasy and
reality. Freud’s Odeipus complex, from the perspective of
female sexuality alleges that the girl’s first love is her mother
but as she grows, she becomes intimately attached to her
father. In this process, she now starts to detach from her
mother, develops a hostile relation and an intense fear of her
and directs her affection to her father instead. Mrs Danver
resembles an oppressive motherly figure and Rebecca as
the ‘other woman’. Furthermore, Freud also asserts that
women usually marry a man who is a substitute of their father
while subconsciously battling their inner conflict of their hostile
relationship with their mother. This conflict is reflected in the
narrator’s insecurity and unstable relationship with Maxim.


Additionally, according to Freud’s model of the psyche: the
Idrepresents the pleasure mind, seeking only immediate
enjoyment; the ego is the rational mind, prohibits one’s basic
drives foridealistic fantasies and the super-ego, the
perfectionist, plays the critical, moralizing role. Rebecca is
significant as the moralizing principle, she is the epitome of
social grace that is torturing the narrator. The conflicts of the
Id, the ego and the superego is constantly battling in the
narrator’s mind. Viewed through a Freudian lens: Rebecca is
no longer a straight-forward romance, rather it emerges as a
psychological study of the complex female sexuality; thus
perhaps so, it has an enduring intriguing appeal with the mass
readership. Hence, the genre of Rebecca is ambiguous and
it has an avant-garde perspective at the time it is written;
and only the acute critics can identify the psychological
insight the novel delivers.


Allen Ginsberg’s innovative Beat poetry is the new poetic
voice of America in the fifties. Beat poetry, in order to
distinct itself from conventional poetry, borrows from ‘high’
poetry and energized its new forms with jazz-improvising
style plus a plurality of mass culture’s voices. These voices
are their passionate rebellion against American culture: the
hypocrisy of any established norms; and their ecstasy is
immersed in jazz, homosexuality and dope-addiction. Beat
poets serve a public purpose: protest against capitalism,
consumerism and social inequalities. In its fierce attacks
against the mainstream US values, this new and
revolutionary force sought a new audience within the
counter culture.


Ginsberg believes that the mind should be free to roam so
that significant associations and connections could be made
and truths emerge. Ginsberg asserts that old poetry should be
revolutionised. He creates an enduring, intriguing tension
between the ‘high’ and ‘popular’ by adding new forms to
the existing ‘high’ literature. Thus, using his self-reflective
technique, he straddles between describing his poetry first to
make it more spontaneous, colloquial and conversational as
well as polishes them with careful construction. Some of the
new forms include jazz-like form: unrhymed lines, no regular
metre, no stanza form, ellipsis and catalogue.


Additionally, the relentless litany-style repetition like the
active verbs ‘who’ in Howl conveys a sense of intensity and
urgency in actions,movements and momentum. The varying
length and inconsistent flow of lines adhere to the
spontaneous experimental jazz –like style of improvising
and the lack of full stops give a sense of breathlessness.
More significantly, the unconventional word play (placing
words in uncertain relations to each other) is mightily
intriguing. For example, Moloch (a name of god) has
being juxtaposed:


“Moloch whose mind is pure machinery!
Moloch whose blood is running money!
...
Moloch whose ear is a smoking tomb!”
(Howl part 2, 5th stanza)

Though the tone is colloquial and conversational it is
accompanied by powerful vivid images that heightens its
poetic qualities, for example, the juxtaposed religious and
‘de-romanticed’ mechanical images:

“Moloch whose skyscrapers stand in the long streets like endless
Jehovahs!”
(Howl, part 11, 6th stanza)



Ginsberg’s father, Louis, uses the ‘high’ poetic tradition:
regular stanza form, rhythm and rhyme, very different
from his son’s. In Atomic:

The splitting apart
Of man from man
Dooms more than splitting
The atom can.

The ‘high’ poetry here, has a sense of rigid formality with
much focus on the meticulously aesthetical structure of words.
This seems to focus on the vanity of the poet himself rather
than passionately expressing the seriousness, agony and
tragedy of the atom bomb. Compare this with
Ginsberg’s Howl:

"I saw the best minds of my generation destroyed by madness,
starving hysterical naked,
dragging themselves through the negro streets at dawn
looking for an angry fix,…”

Here, people are described as ‘starving, hysterical, angry,
burning’; the imagery here is vivid and the words are
intense. The passion is ignited, it captures the precise,
particular rhythm and sentiments of his generation.
Ginsberg’s sense of poetry is, as stated at the end
of Howl:

“to recreate the syntax and measure of poor human prose
and stand before you speechless and intel-
ligent and shaking with shame, rejected yet con-
fessing out the soul to conform to the rhythm
of thought in his naked and endless head.”

Ginberg’s new poetry speaks profoundly and genuinely of
what is really happening in his society and more significantly,
the communication between the souls rather than rigidly
adhering to the form of ‘high’ literature soullessly.


Literary value is not a fixed phenomenon: its value is
subjective and continuously shifting. The rhythm of each
generation is different, all things evolve: politics, economics,
lifestyles. So why shouldn’t literature evolve? High literature
no longer belongs to the exclusive elite especially in this age
of technology; the literacy rate has expanded tremendously
and there are more educated and intelligent people belonging
to the mass culture than in the era of the canonical writers.
To rigidly focus on the aesthetic stylistics without expressing
the entire explosive emotions, anxieties and sentiments of the
contemporary society is to be devoid of genuine emotional
rhythm and momentum which is worse than the devoid
aesthetic values.


If Jane Eyre can evolve from popular fiction to ‘High’
literature, why shouldn’t Rebecca? Rebecca is not just a
slavish imitation of Jane Eyre, it is a re-write of an original
idea. Its intertextual and ambiguous quality can be interpreted
in many ways and has an enduring appeal. Additionally,
Ginsberg ingeniously revolutionised old poetry with new forms.
His energized poetry can precisely depict the hurricane of
emotions of his generation that rigid forms fail to do so.
Mikhail Bakhtin, the Russian philosopher in his work of
literary theory denounces the ‘monologic’ work of literature,
he contends that all works of literature is dialogic: it is a
continuous dialogue with other works of literature and
other authors.

(1586 words)



Bibliography:
Du Maurier, Daphne. “Rebecca” Virago press. 2010. Print.
Johnson, David. “The Popular & the Canonical.” The Open University, Routledge. 2005. Print.
Ginsberg, Allen. “Howl” City Lights Books. 1959. Print.
Dialogic.Wikipedia. Web. 21 Aug. 2010
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialogic

Freud about Dream Interpretation. Web. 21 Aug. 2010
http://dreaminterpretation.freudfile.org/freud_about_dreams.html

Oedipus complex. Wikipedia. Web. 21 Aug. 2010
<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oedipus_complex>



Total Mark : 80
Dear Cheryl
This has been a pleasure to read with many keen insights that address the question and engage with the issue of resistance to ideologies. There is also close textual analysis and a distinct flow of the arguments.  That said, it’s a well-constructed and relevant response.

Marcus



Plabo Neruda-Love Sonnets

from Cien Sonetos de Amor (100 Love Sonnets)

Night on the Island

Perhaps your dream
drifted from mine
and through the dark sea
was seeking me
as before,
when you did not yet exist,
when without sighting you
I sailed by your side,
and your eyes sought
what now- bread, wine, love, and anger-
I heap upon you because you
are the cup
that was waiting for the gifts of my life.


I have slept with you
all night long while
the dark earth spins
with the living and the dead,
and on waking suddenly
in the midst of the shadow
 my arm encircled your waist.


Neither night nor sleep
could separate us.


I have slept with you
and on waking, your mouth,
come from your dream,
gave me the taste of earth,
of sea water, of seaweed,
of the depths of your life,
and I received your kiss
moistened by the dawn as if it came to me
from the sea that surrounds us.

by Pablo Neruda

from Cien Sonetos de Amor (100 Love Sonnets)
XVII

I do not love you as if you were salt-rose, or topaz,
or the arrow of carnations the fire shoots off.
I love you as certain dark things are to be loved,
in secret, between the shadow and the soul.

I love you as the plant that never blooms
but carries in itself the light of hidden flowers;
thanks to your love a certain solid fragrance,
risen from the earth, lives darkly in my body.


I love you without knowing how, or when, or from where.
I love you straightforwardly, without complexities or pride;
so I love you because I know no other way


than this: where I do not exist, nor you,
so close that your hand on my chest is my hand,
so close that your eyes close as I fall asleep.

Creative psychology: Singapore can be creative meh?

essay by cheryl yow

Psychology of Creativity
Using the insights from the psychological literature on creativity,
discuss the challenges faced in developing a creative society of
Singaporeans, and provide suggestions on how this goal can
be achieved.




Creativity has an intimate link with the culture of a society.
 Cultural values either promote or hinder creativity. It is doubtful
 if the British billionaire Richard Branson with his flamboyant
personality would have been able to exhibit his creativity if he had
been born in Singapore. The dichotomy between eastern and
western society displays a glaring disparity in nurturing
creativity. The individualistic culture of western society
encourages creativity while the collective culture of eastern
society like Singapore with its concern for maintaining order
breeds conformity hence diminishes creativity. Singapore
prides itself of an effective, far-sighted government making it
one of the finest cities in the world; however, being scarce of
natural resources, it has to rely completely on human
resources for its economic competiveness. Ironically, due to
much obeisance to the autocratic government, Singapore
promotes more law abiding citizens rather than creative
individuals.We will look at the challenges in creating a
creative society in Singapore by discussing its child-rearing
style, its educational system and the stifled environment;
along with some suggested ideas to promote creativity.




The first challenge is the role of child-rearing in Singapore which
prescribe how children are socialized. In Singapore, the sense of
selfhood (way of being a person in society) is dictated by
‘we-ness’. Young Singaporeans are disciplined to obey their
parents and authorities and to uphold social norms. Conflicts
are viewed negatively, so individuals who behave
unconventionally are seen as disruptive rather than helping
them to redefine boundaries. Trying to stand out like the
westerners: not having a stable job, instead, living an
unrealistic dream of a struggling artist, would deemed
unwise as 'the nail that stands out get beaten down'.
Parents' authoritative moralism focuses more on
children fulfilling their filial piety - by gaining good academic
scores and getting a respectable, well-paid job. While the
West is socialized by ‘I-ness’ where its citizens are
considered independent, separate entities who are free to
pursue their interests; and western parents playing mentors,
urging children to gain early independence and to seek their
ideals; Singaporean parents focus more on children’s
short-comings rather than complimenting their achievements
and this results in the children’s negative self-construal and
self-criticism instead of enhancing themselves.



Young Singaporeans in conforming to the ideals of their
in-groups live passively: burying their individuality resulting in
Singaporean’s closed personality: a reserved, detached
attitude. Singapore collective culture encourages people to
be face-conscious. Thus, Singaporeans are seen as ego-
involved individuals who are dictated by external forces like
seeking approval or fear of being embarrassed if their ideas
are not accepted whereas western task-involved individuals
are intrinsically motivated to create for sheer pressure.
Singaporeans being too focus on main-zi ( face value) for
fear of social embarrassment tends to focus inwardly on
themselves rather than outwardly on solving problems or
creating novelties and this results in uncreative behaviour.
Thus, ineffective child-rearing style based on ‘we-ness’
that solely socialized children to be conforming and
ego-conscious stifles their innate creativity.



The next challenge is the Singapore educational system; at
best produces hardworking students who ranked among the
world’s best academically rather than creative individuals
who could win Nobel prizes. In 1997, PM Goh Chok
Thong unveiled his vision of ' Thinking Schools, Learning
Nation' that led to numerous changes in the curriculum; yes,
Singaporeans are learning but are schools thinking? With the
‘new’ freedom several reputable schools made English
literature optional rather than compulsory because these
schools do not excelled in it, thus the ‘new’ public ranking
make them focus narrowly on outcomes that is relevant for
public ranking. (http://209.85.175.104/search?q=cache:
_96CiZQG7dEJ:www.nira.or.jp/past/publ/review/2000summer/tan.pdf+%27
problems%2B+creativity%2 B+singapore%27&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=1).
Singapore educational system is highly competitive,
pressurising and performance-orientated; Teachers who are
burdened with heavy workload simply transmit knowledge
for exam purposes rather than inspire. Parents are overly
involved and demanding with students' performance.
Additionally, while western students can apply to study in
eminent universities by demonstrating a talent like writing
Latin verses, entry to local universities are strictly dependant
on good academic scores. Moreover, local universities do
not offer courses with low market value like anthropology
or archaeology. The unyielding focus of both the family
and society is for students to graduate with distinction that
is correlated with higher earnings potentials. Hence, the
system produces unthinking exam-smart students. Instead
of cultivating ingenious individuals, we create a society of
competitive, performance-orientated yet passionless
individuals.




In promoting creativity in Singapore, children need to be
socialized differently. Therefore, in child-rearing, parents need
inculcate a balance sense of ‘we-ness’ and ‘I-ness’. Asian’s
hallmark of close-knitted tradition ‘we-ness’ need to embrace
some degree of individuality and flexibility. Rather than taking
an authoritative stance, parents should allow some healthy
conflicts and expose children to some situations of calculated
risk to develop their ‘adversity quotient’ in order to conquer
the inevitable to achieve their dreams. Parents need to avoid
focusing excessively on academic scores and getting intensely
involved with children’s school performance; consequently,
robbing their imagination, hence, children lose their
spontaneity and idealism which is crucial to creativity.
Parents need to be more generous with children’s deserving
compliments, though not overly superficial compliments, as
these will lead to false uniqueness bias. Criticisms used
negatively will dampen one’s self-confidence, however,
constructive criticisms that focus less on emotion or ego but
more on empowerment will help children to handle setbacks
positively. Individuals’ identities are etched in the important
years of childhood and adolescence, thus effective
child-rearing will help cultivate creativity. Government
organisations like People Association, or schools can help
parents by conducting seminars like ‘Creativity and Child
Development’ to equip parents with the necessary
child-rearing skills.



While parents help to lay the foundation for creativity,
schools could further unleash and ignite children’s creativity.
To stay competitive in the 21th century, it is necessary to
revolutionize the present system of rote-learning, meaningless
memorising and performance-based exam educational system.
Lessons conducted should not based solely on passive
theoretical construct; this has rendered children immaturity
as they are not able to apply the significance of them. For
instance, my friend’s overactive son was restless and not
performing well in a Singapore school. He was then
enrolled into the American International School in
Singapore. In one of his mathematic lessons for 12
year- olds, students get to learn about the stock market
and even have a game of it. He has since performed
exceptionally well. Thus, if students are exposed to the
reality of the world, then they become inspired to apply the
learning significance in the ‘real’ world. A holistic approach
to learning with integrated real world experiences is essential.
We also need to give more platforms for students to perform
whatever they like, of wit and imagination that is unscripted
and unpredictable. Schools could also encourage constructive
conflicts such as having more frequent mini- debates on current
events across all levels. These are highly productive for
creativity.



Additionally, the way of assessing school through ranking
systems and students through performance-based exams; set
the whole society of schools, parents and children in a
 rat-race of futile competitiveness. This increases stress,
 depletes creative energy and it resulted in Singaporeans
overly practical attitude in a functionary day-to-day existence.
Assessments could be made flexible that include mastery
skills or unique talents. Government could help to allocate
more places and opportunities for individuals to display talents
as well as provide the necessary facilities for them to further
hone their skills and creativity; and more importantly help to
give recognition for talented individuals too. They will serve
as a showcase for Singapore creative individuals and will
further encourage others to do so. Besides paying the
ministers well to avoid bribery, Singapore can also pay
these unique, talented individuals well enough to create
market value for them. Teachers should have less
workload and more time to inspire. Entry to universities
should be made flexible and universities could include
more diverse courses. Families and schools could work
together to promote a crisp culture of task-involved
individuals by focusing less on mian-zi ( face value)
and by showing them that it is alright to be different
from the norm, to be wrong, or even foolish at times,
as long as they focus on contributing ideas to solve
problems or create novelties.



Finally, the environment is a crucial factor in promoting
creativity. Singapore is seen as a ‘mall country’ –clean and
green, organised and contrived. No kid with freaky hair can
be seen and most young Singaporeans look identical: tidy
and well-scrubbed too. Even Chinatown was restored into a
theme park instead of a historical site; in Italy, some restorers
of old buildings even retain the moss on the walls to preserve
its authenticity and ancient aura. Singapore needs to stop
building more malls rather it should allocate more space for
public displays of creativity: an open space for wacky
expressions or allowing artists to perform or even draw on
some roads. Moreover, creativity has been explicitly taught
in schools! What happened to spontaneity? Can creativity be
‘planned’? Singapore needs to create a little mess and
openness in its environment to breed some wacky ideas
which allow Richard Branson to create and Googles to
develop ingeniously.



Lest people think of Singapore as merely a clean, orderly
city devoid of creativity, it is time to move away from its
sterile image as a ‘cultural desert’. Singapore with its
diversity of a unique hybrid of eastern and western
cultures has immense potential for creative expressions.
Singapore should not be afraid of new ideas but do be
fearful of old ones. The empires of the future are the
empires of the creative minds.

(1560 words)



Reference:

Ng, Aik Kwang, (2001). Why Asians are less creative than Westerners, Singapore:
Prentice Hall.


Education Reform in Singapore: Towards Greater Creativity and Innovation?
by Jason Tan and S. Gopinathan.
http://209.85.175.104/search?q=cache:_96CiZQG7dEJ:www.nira.or.jp/past/publ/review/2000summer/tan.pdf+%27problems%2B+creativity%2B+singapore%27&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=1 Retrieved 6.10. 2008

Abnormal psychology: Defence Mechanisms

essay by cheryl yow




Question:
Psychoanalytic model of psychopathology views phobia as a
symbolic outward expression of internal anxiety.

Using the concept of defence mechanisms, one of their
important contributions, discuss the possible defences
being used by Rhea. Explain what these defence mechanisms
are and what behaviours in Rhea express their use.


Scenario:
Rhea, 26 years old has a phobia of the dark. She was
transferred to Singapore one month back. She hesitated
coming here as she had never lived on her own but the
lure of her dream job was strong. Today, after a month,
she resigned. When questioned by the office counsellor,
she replied it involved travelling back from office at
9pm: 'I could not concentrate on the job after 6pm in
fear that I have to go home alone in the dark’. She did
not want to tell anyone why she was leaving as she
‘knows’ people do not understand that she is only being
sensible in not putting herself in dangerous situations.


When she informed her parents, her mother
sympathized with her and understood her fears
as she has been fearful of being alone especially
at night since childhood. She remembers never
allowing her to go on school camps or night out
with friends as Rhea was unable to sleep without
the lights turned on and somebody looking out for
her. The mother always had to reassure her that
that her door was open to hear if Rhea ever
needed her. The mother remembers her own
childhood when she would be afraid of
the buggy man.


Rhea’s father, on the other hand, tried to
reason with her saying how safe Singapore is and
how there is enough traffic at night for her to be
not alone and not fearful. This infuriates Rhea
as, ‘he always suggests something but then does
not really do anything about it, at least my mother
will offer help like she can come and stay with me.’
When asked to elaborate she explained how her
mother and father do not have a very warm
relationship. He is a workaholic and her mother
takes all decisions in the running of the home. She
calls him a ‘weak man’ who does not have a
‘backbone’.


Her memory of her childhood is of a protective
mother ‘I am my mother’s doll. With her in my life,
I don’t have to worry about anything. She takes
care of my every need.’When questioned if she
missed not having any siblings, she replied, ‘Well,
I had one brother who, I don’t know how, died
when I was 4. But nobody talks of him so I
really don’t know what it means to have a sibling.’







Psychoanalytic perspective, Sigmund Freud’s
influential model in psychopathology, focuses on
the unconscious mind and its significant impact
on psychological disorders. Psychoanalytic model
establishes the structure of the mind: Id, ego and superego.
The conflicts between these three theoretical constructs
are referred as intra-psychic conflicts, they are
constantly in conflict. These complex unconscious mental
conflicts give rise to neurotic symptoms that hamper
mental functioning. Although it is difficult to study the
premises of psychoanalytic theory scientifically, many
insights from psychoanalysis help us to understand our
unconscious urges. Defence mechaniisms, an important
contribution of psychoanalysis- are the psyche way to
help us deal with our anxiety. We will look into the
 nature of phobia and the causes of Rhea’s
nyctophobia; then we will examine the dynamics of
Id, ego and superego including Rhea’s use of specific
defence mechanisms to deal with her fears and insecurity.




Anxiety helps an individual escape an anticipated
threatening situation that has no immediate threat to
his well-being. Everyone experiences a variety of normal
anxieties. Having some anxieties is helpful,; it can
prepare people in handling unsetting and challenging
situations. Only when an anxiety persists that it becomes
a phobia- an extreme, severe, persistent fear of an object
or a situation that severely limited one’s life. Anxiety is
a fear of ‘nothing’ (no immediate threat) and phobia is a
fear of something (symbolic). Phobia is a symbolic outward
expression of internal anxiety. Nyctophobia is a frenzied
fear of darkness, usually started from childhood. It is
triggered by the mind’s flawed perceptivity of what could
happen in the dark or what darkness symbolizes . The
Darkness phobia is usually associated with security: the
fear of the loss of a personal connection and separation
from loved ones or fear of being left alone and unable to
find a person when needed or fear of abandonment.



In Rhea’s case, her phobia is probably caused by four
factors. Firstly, her mother’s fear of the buggy man
(an imaginary being) and also the her own fear of being
alone at night might have influenced Rhea. Secondly, her
mother considers Rhea’s father a ‘weak man with no backbone’
and this leads to the unconscious internalization of her
mother’s values. As a result, Rhea describes her father
as a passive, undemonstrative man who ‘always suggest
something and does not really do anything about it’ when
she informed him of her fears. This further highlights the
fact that the father is unable to protect her from her
phobia. Thirdly, Rhea’s parents did not have a warm
relationship. Her father is a workaholic and he might not
be too involved with the home and certainly lacked deep
bonding with Rhea during her childhood. This could
contribute to Rhea’s insecurity – loss of a personal
connection with her father (father represents the
protector of the family) and the unconscious fear of
‘mental’ abandonment (by her father). Lastly, and the
most significant factor is the death of her brother when
she was four; this triggers her fear of separation from
loved ones. Rhea family’s avoidance from the painful
reality of her brother’s death is obvious as no one talk
about his death even when Rhea is already an adult. Without
an outlet for the proper grief of the death of her brother,
that pain is forever trapped within her mind. Her mother
has unknowingly contributed and extended Rhea’s phobia
by not seeking treatment for her phobia.



Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytic theory categorizes human
personality into three essential parts: Id, Ego and
Superego. Personality, according to Freud is the conflict
between biological impulses and social restraints that are
internalized. Id is the dark, negative part of our
personality which leads to the construction of neurotic
symptoms. It begins at birth and it is the repository mass
of inherited instinctive impulses (food, water) and drives
(primitive, sexual, aggressive). Id, the animalistic nature
operates within the pleasure principle demands instant
self-gratification. Id is often egocentric, illogical,
irrational and amoral. Ego operates differently, it is the
conscious mind that develops when the child understands
reality and acts realistically. Ego is logical, rational
and realistic. Ego is the defensive operator, composed of
forces that opposes oppose id’s drives. Superego, the
ethical element, emerges once the child learns about moral
values instilled by one’s parents and culture (society's
norms, taboos). Superego’s idealism is the conscience based
on values, guilt and shame. It abides by moral principles
and strives to act in a socially appropriate manner.


Intra-psychic conflicts arise when the emotional Id ruled by
the pleasure principle demands instant self-gratification
while Ego driven by the reality principle is logical and
rational whereas Superego abide by the moral principle is
concerned with conscience. Due to their conflicting
objectives, they tend to stand in opposition to each
other’s values and desires. Ego controls Id impulses by
being realistic and Superego seek to inhibit Id’s desires
and convince ego of more moral goals rather than realistic
ones. An interesting example would be: Mr Davies
walks into a café and sees an attractive lady who
smiles at him and his Id thinks ‘I like to walk up to
her and kiss her in the middle of the café’. The ego
would say ‘You can’t just goa nd kiss any attractive
woman that you don’t know publicly. You should
get to know her first’. Superego moralises and
snaps ‘You can’t do that, you are married!’ Id
represents instinctual biological impulses (sexuality,
aggression). The Id’s impulse to kiss an unknown
woman publicly conflicts with Ego’s rationality as well
as the ideals of Superego. These conflicts invoke
anxiety and Ego, the mediator, would then try to pacify
and compromise both Id and Superego. To reduce
anxiety Ego would use defense mechanisms. Defence
mechanisms are used unconsciously to reduce tension
by covering up our threatening impulses.



In Freudian psychoanalytic theory, defense mechanisms are
psychological strategies to cope with reality and to
maintain self-image. Defence mechanisms provide a refuge
and protect us (our ego) from social sanctions and
anxieties. Everyone uses defence mechanisms. Defence
mechanisms only become pathological when its persistent
use leads to maladaptive behavior that adversely impair an
individual’s mental and physical functioning. Ego employs
defence mechanisms when anxiety (feelings of guilt, shame,
embarrassment) becomes overwhelming to protect the
individual; taking defensive action towards the perceived
danger. All defence mechanisms unconsciously block impulses
by distorting, transforming or falsify reality. In
distorting reality, there is a change in perception which
reduces tension and lessens anxiety. Through defense
mechanisms, the ego tries to eliminate anxiety.


In Rhea’s case, she is using some defence mechanisms known
as denial, regression, projection as well as introjection.
Denial is the refusal to accept external reality by not
acknowledging its existence or occurrence because it is too t
hreatening or too painful.. Rhea is unconsciously denying pain
from the death of her brother because she and her family
could not accept the reality of it; that is why nobody talks
about it and she does not even know how her brother died
(implicitly denying its occurrence). Repression blocks
disturbing thoughts or experiences from conscious
awareness. An unacceptable fear is repressed into the
subconscious mind which then search for a substitute- for
something symbolic to which the original feelings of
anxiety and fear can be transferred into. Rhea must have
repressed the unacceptable fear of her brother’s death and
the lack of her father’s presence and protection. Thus the
subject of her phobia- darkness actually masks her real
fear of insecurity and abandonment by loved ones.




Projection: falsely attributes own unacceptable feelings,
impulses or thoughts to another individual or object. Rhea
has projected her fear and perhaps guilt into something
symbolic – darkness. Introjection – the process of
unconscious appropriation of an external happening or
assimilation of the characteristics of a person into
one's psyche. Rhea has certainly assimilated her mother’s
fear of being alone at night, her mother’ s belief – of her
weak and not protective father and her parents’ attitude
of her brother’s death.




The purpose of psychoanalysis was to bring repressed
memories, fears and thoughts back to conscious
awareness. Relaxation techniques are helpful:
visualization (of floating on a cloud) and deep breathing.
With proper child therapy, usually involving play therapy
in the dark (for darkness phobia), Rhea could have
recovered. The key to resolving phobias is to overcome
them. Therapeutic experiences of realization are used
to show how these mechanisms are no longer appropriate.
When a patient fully understands the repressed feelings,
the fear will become manageable or will disappear.



Carl Jung, the Swiss psychiatrist, wrote about the shadow
aspect of our psychology : every person has a shadow, which
is made up of anything unconscious, repressed, denied or
undeveloped. (Carl Junghttp://en.wikipedia.org /wiki
/Carl_Jung) However, he also claims that this shadow also
contains light - our undeveloped potential and tremendous
creativity. The shadow is therefore an aspect of ourselves
that we should get to know instead of avoiding it. With
proper therapy the phobic individual like Rhea will be
able to resolve her fears in her shadow of darkness that
had impaired her life and activities for too long and
instead unleash her hidden creative potential.


(1503 words)




Reference

Barlow, D.H., & Durand, V.M. (2009, 2005). Abnormal psychology: An integrative approach (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.


McQuade, J (2007). Sigmund’s Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory. Retrieved 28 February 2009
HTTP://WWW.ASSOCIATEDCONTENT.COM/ARTICLE/424863/SIGMUND_FREUDS_PSYCHOANALYTIC_THEORY_PG2.HTML?CAT=47


Berryhill, K. Three Major Concepts of Psychoanalytic Theory - A Brief Summarization. Retrieved 28 February 2009 http://ezinearticles.com/?Three-Major-Concepts-of-Psychoanalytic-Theory---A-Brief-Summarization&id=1394331

Psychoanalysis: psychopathology ( Mental Disturbances). Retrieved 28 February 2009 http://www.psychotherapy.ro/resources/psychotherapies/psychoanalysis-psychopathology-mental-disturbances/


Cadena, C. (2007). Underlying Cause & Origin of Darkness Phobia in Children. Retrieved 28 February 2009
http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/446913/underlying_cause_origin_of_darkness_pg2.html?cat=25


Carl Jung. Retrieved 28 february 2009
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Jung

Abnormal psychology: Cognitive theories of depression

essay by cheryl yow


Scenario:
26 year old Mary has been depressed for months.
Her boyfriend of two weeks left her. Rita, her
childhood friend suggests that Mary sees a
therapist. Mary replies, ‘What is the point?’
 I think I am meant to be alone, I can never find
one who can love me, and I have nothing
special to offer.’


Rita assures her that she has many positive
qualities, e.g.; ‘You look great, you have a good
job, you are educated and not to forget what a
sincere friend you are’. Mary is hardly
 impressed and says, ‘What good looks?
Remember in university, I only got referred to as
‘pretty’, not beautiful.I am no more special than
anyone else, my job is average, I am not the CEO,
I am never going to be really successful, and I am
only a graduate, not even with honours. I just
cannot excel at anything, if I was meant to be
happy like you, why should I have inherited my
mother’s illness; she suffered just like I am’.


Question:
Describe how a cognitive therapist would explain
why Mary is experiencing depression.



Cognitive theories of depression emphasize the role
of irrational thought processes. American psychiatrist
Aaron Beck proposed that individuals learn to view things
negatively during early childhood. Depressed people tends
to view themselves, their environment and the future
negatively because of errors in thinking. Depressed people
commonly acquired negative views through abusive rearing
style of parents, critical parents, loss of loved one or
social rejection of friends . This could give rise to
‘depressive’ personality traits – self-criticism,
excessive scepticism, gloominess, pessimism, and people
with these traits appear at greater risk for depression.
We will look into the cognitive explanation for Mary’s
depression by looking into the cognitive revolution and
the three major features of cognition- depressive
cognitive triad, cognitive errors (arbitrary inference,
over-generalisation), negative schemas as well as learned
helplessness and hopelessness theory.



The ''cognitive revolution'' emerges as a reaction against
behavioral interpretations of depression. Behavioural
approaches to depression were popular until the early 1980’s
after which they were overtaken by cognitive perspectives.
Behavioural theorists ignore the impact or meaning of the
emotions in depression, instead they saw emotions merely
as drive mechanisms implicated in the processes of positive
and negative conditioning. Modern cognitive theories emerged
when psychologists, rejecting exclusively consequence-based
explanations of behavior, began to elaborate their own
interpretations of learning. Cognitive perspective, in
understanding depression, focuses not on observable
responses but on the inferred mental processes. Cognitive
processes and activities such as information processing,
mental representations, and expectations are central
to the cognitive interpretation of depressions.


Regarding Mary’s case, her boyfriend of two weeks has left
her and she has been depressed for months. Any breaking off
of a relationship is upsetting, it can cause anxiety which
later leads to depression. The quality and quantity of time
they spent together during those 2 weeks is an important
consideration- from having one or two short dates a week
to living together everyday for two weeks -the longer one
spends with the other the more time for bonding thus it
gets harder to part. A relationship that short may not have
impacted most people, however it all depend depends on the
context and the meaning an individual attaches to a
relationship. It depends how intense the relationship was,
have they already reached a point where they were
already intimate physically or were they just merely
holding hands. The more intimate a couple is the harder
it is to lose the other. Again, whether a person in this
situation would have depression also depends on the
individual’s personality. Mary’s boyfriend whom she had
only known for 2 weeks had left her and she was depressed
for months, yet another person in the same situation might
just cry for a night or two and then choose to start
partying to meet other potential suitors. Thus depending,
how intense andhow intimate the relationship has developed
in those two weeks and also the individual’s personality,
depression may or may not occur.



Beck suggests that depression is due to dysfunctional
cognition. There are three major features of cognition.
Firstly, the ‘depressive cognitive triad’: this consists
of negative cognitions concerning oneself (e.g. “I am
undesirable, worthless and inadequate”), the world
(e.g. the world is defeating and overly demanding), and
the future (e.g. “I am always bound to fail and to suffer”).
Mary comments that she was only referred as ‘pretty’ not
beautiful, that she is not more special than anyone else,
she is only a graduate and her job is average shows her
extreme self negativity. ‘I think I am meant to be alone,
I can never find one who can love me,..’, ‘I am never going
to be really successful.’ tells us that Mary is certainly
very negative about her immediate world and her future.



Secondly, faulty thinking or cognitive errors in the
cognitive triad of which a number of errors have been
identified, e.g. arbitrary inference and
overgeneralization. Arbitrary inference refers to a
depressed person who focuses on the negative rather
than the positive aspects of a situation – even the
smallest setback becomes a major tragedy. In Mary’s
case leaving a boyfriend of only 2 weeks seems to her
more like she is leaving a boyfriend of 2 years. When
Rita, her best friend, suggests that Mary should see a
therapist, she replies, ‘What is the point?’ I think I
am meant to be alone, I can never find one who can love
me, and I have nothing special to offer.’ This reflects
Mary’s negative attitude even when the break-off was
months ago.


Overgeneralisation, another form of cognitive errors,
is when one tends to overgeneralise one’s negative
situation as we can see from Mary’s response that she was
meant to be alone and that she will not be able to find
someone who could love her and that she ‘just cannot excel
at anything’. Mary overgeneralizes the negativity of her
one break-up and believes that her future holds impending
gloom for her. In time these practiced thinking errors
becomes ‘automatic negative thoughts’. People are usually
only partially aware of their automatic thoughts; however
they exert a great influence over how they view the world
and accordingly behave.



Thirdly, schemas; these are hypothetical cognitive
structures that influence the screening, coding and
organization of environmental information. Negative schemas
are learned from early unfortunate interactions with the
environment, especially with significant others. Beck
theorized that individuals may develop a deep-seated
negative schema after some negative events during childhood.
Early experience can shape maladaptive attitudes and beliefs
in the child. Dysfunctional schemas (e.g. “I must do
everything perfectly or else I’m a failure”) can predispose
people to distort events in a way that leads to depression.
It is thought that dysfunctional schemas and beliefs can lie
‘dormant’ for a number of years until a series of events
‘re-awaken’ the schematic beliefs which then activate the
cognitive triad.Mary could not believe that she could be
happy - ‘why should I have inherited my mother’s illness;
she suffered just like I am’. Though inheriting her
mother’s depression, Mary will be more vulnerable to
stress and depression, but also growing up with a
depressed mother (the environment) could even
further intensifies her vulnerability to it. Becks
suggests these cognitive errors and schemas are automatic,
unconscious, individual individuals might not even know
they are thinking negatively or illogically. Thus
depressive cognition seems to emerge from automatic
processing of information and distorted views.


Learned helplessness theory, a related but differing
cognitive perspective is proposed by Seligman (1975,
cited by Barlow & Durand, 2009). Learned helplessness
is a learned belief that one cannot control the outcome of
events. In this view depression is seen as faulty learning
regarding personal locus of control that is -when one is
subjected to negative events seen as outside of one’s
control - hopelessness, passivity and depression result.
Rats that received occasional shocks, can cope with them
by doing something to avoid them ( pressing a lever).
However, if they are not able to do something to avoid
these shocks, they will become anxious, helpless and
depressed as they had no control over difficult
life events. Seligman suggests that learned helplessness
(also referred to as conditioned helplessness) occurs in
individuals as a form of depression.Long-time exposure to
uncontrollable and inescapable events leads to apathy and
pessimism . When all attempts to escape or avoid negative
situations have failed, people give up and an attitude
of learned helplessness develops. In Mary’s case, if she
feels that she is not in control of this negative
situation she might lapse into learned helplessness.



Another cognitive perspective suggests that depression
results not only from ‘learned helplessness’ but also
from hopelessness. The hopelessness theory attributes
depression to a pattern of negative thinking in which
people blame themselves for negative life events and view
the causes of those events as permanent. Thus people with
depression often experience feelings of guilt, self-blame
and worthlessness. They may interpret a minor failing on
their part as a sign of incompetence or interpret minor
criticism as condemnation. In some cases, people with
depression may experience psychotic symptoms, such as
delusions (false beliefs) and hallucinations (false
sensory perceptions). People with major depression may
experience such extreme emotional pain that they consider
or attempt suicide.



Mary’s depression, according to cognitive perspective is
due to faulty cognition during childhood (much influenced
by her mother who also has depression): depressive
cognitive triad, cognitive errors (arbitrary inference,
over-generalisation), negative schemas that leads to learned
helplessness and hopelessness theory. Once we understand and
spot these cognitive errors and distorted schemas we can
correct it to prevent potential depression.


(1416 words)





Reference:

Barlow, D.H., & Durand, V.M. (2009, 2005). Abnormal psychology:
An integrative approach (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Abnormal psychology: Confidentiality vs Duty to Warn

essay by cheryl yow



Scenario:
Amanda is suffering from acute post traumatic
stress disorder for the last six months. Three years
back she was a victim of date rape. She did not
report the incident, believed it was an accident,
and moved on. Six months back she had a panic
attack while watching a movie and had to be
helped by friends to return home. She did not
leave her apartment for a week. Her friend
cajoled her to take help.


The social worker, Jane has been working with
her since and it took her months to develop a good
working alliance and earn Amanda’s trust and
 confidence. But yesterday Jane found out that
behind Amanda’s anxiety is rage. She is
expressing her plan to kill her rapist whom she
finds is enjoying life, succeeding in his career and
now planning to get married when he should have
been in prison. In Jane’s assessment, Amanda’s
plan is well thought out. Jane finds herself caught
in her promise of confidentiality
and her duty to warn.




Question:
Discuss the ethical code provided by American psychological
Association (APA) on this subject.




Psychological treatment, by necessity, entails the
disclosure of extremely sensitive, private information.
The significance of confidentiality is reflected in the ethical
and legal obligations to protect the patient’s privacy. A breach
of confidentiality will harm the patient and expose the
psychologist to a malpractice lawsuit. Although psychologists
have to preserve the confidentiality of their patients, there
are circumstances under which this confidentiality may be
breached such as danger to self and others – committing
suicide, homicide or child/wife abuse. How to ethically set
patient confidentiality boundaries – the balance of the
rights of the patient with the responsibilities of protecting
the society is controversial. This essay addresses the issue
of confidentiality in the above situation of Amanda, who is
suffering from acute post traumatic stress disorder, and by
revealing her plan to kill her rapist, placed Jane, her
social worker, in a dilemma. We will look at the American
Psychological Association’s (APA’s) Ethical code in
maintaining confidentiality and in disclosure; and evaluate
the conflicting values of Jane’s duty to protect and her
duty to warn.



The American Psychological Association’s (APA’s) Ethical
Principles of Psychologist and Code of Conduct serve to guide
psychologists toward the highest ideals of their profession.
These ethical principles in the Ethics Code set forth
psychology’s core values and they play a fundamental role in
setting its ethical parameters. In APA’s 4.01 - Maintaining Confidentiality: it states that the ethical responsibility
of psychologists is to safeguard information they receive
in the course of their practice.


The patient, Amanda, has the right to expect all
communications and records pertaining to her case to be
confidential. The real meaning of trust is that one may tell
all from the depth of one’s soul to another confidentially
and believe without doubt, that the information given is safe
unto death. As it had taken Jane months to be able to gain
Amanda’s trust and confidence in a special therapeutic
relationship, breaking that trust would further worsen
Amanda’s condition and expose her to more harm. A patient
must be able to trust the therapist without a second thought
to information being disclosed to his/her personal detriment.
If this assurance of absolute confidentiality is not honoured
and results in broken trust; it will deter future patients
from seeking psychological treatments or therapies.


An ethically exigent issue in the psychology profession is
the principle of confidentiality and the dilemma it causes
in society. This ethical dilemma arises when two of the
values found in the ethical principles conflict. The duty
to warn in APA’s ethical code has created a principled
dilemma for psychological professionals. Jane faces a moral
problem; she has to choose between –the duty to protect
Amanda, her patient or the duty to warn the rapist or
appropriate authorities of the potential danger. This
creates a potential problem for psychologists, who must
adhere to APA ethical standards, which advocate that under
most circumstances psychologists do not disclose
confidential information without the prior consent of the
patient. Thus ‘to maintain patient’s confidentiality’
conflicts with ‘duty to warn’.



In another similar dilemma, John, a psychologist is the
principal investigator for the ‘Assist’ Project, which is to
identify behavioural trends among HIV+ adults in New York
city. Participants were recruited from HIV/AIDS support
groups. One participant tells John that she is having
unprotected sex with her boyfriend and that her boyfriend
does not know about her HIV status. She has no plans to
reveal her condition. Here, the duty to preserve patient
confidentiality clearly conflict with the need to inform
past and present contacts of an HIV-infected patient of
possible exposure to the virus. Under Principle E: Respect
for People's Rights and Dignity, the APA’s Ethics Code
states that psychologists should respect people's rights
and dignity, including their rights to privacy,
confidentiality and autonomy.
(http://www.onlineethics.org/CMS/research/rescases
/gradres/gradresv3/ hivaffect.aspx).
Thus, Jane needs to seriously consider Amanda’s rights,
autonomy and dignity.




Additionally, there are no clear boundaries that
psychologists can determine whether a patient is dangerous
or not. One may say ‘ I am so angry I could kill him now!’.
Is this said in a fit of anger that does not carry any
threat or to what extent will the patient really executes
this perilous action? Since Jane had found out that behind
Amanda’s anxiety is rage she needs to determine to what
extent will Amanda really set out to harm her rapist. It
could depend chiefly on the intensity of Amanda’s rage
and anxiety. We can never be sure how accurate are
therapists are at predicting who will or will not be
dangerous. In a recent shocking local case, where a
70 year-old taxi driver, Mr Ong Kah Chua set MP Seng
Han Thong on fire by pouring a bottle of thinner! Mr Ong
was angry just because he did not received any hongbao.
A neighbour described Mr Ong as a quiet, reserved and
caring man. He only started acting strangely
(ran up and down the corridorfor no apparent reason)
after his wife moved out to live with their son to
babysit their grandchildren. It is inconceivable and
unpredictable how a quiet, reserved man, even if he has
been acting a little strange lately ( don’t most of us act
a little strange at times, even when we are ‘normal’?)
to resort to such a violent action for a ridiculous
reason. Although he has been in and out the Institute of
Mental Health, no warning was given by his therapist.


This issue of confidentiality and disclosure were the
subject of a tragic case known as Tarasoff v. Regents of
the university of California. In 1969, Prosenjit Poddar,
a graduate student, killed a female student, Tatiana
Tarasoff,after she rejected his romantic advances. He was
diagnosed as having paranoid schizophrenia and had confided
in his therapist that he wais going to kill Tarasoff. The
therapist did inform the campus police and Poddar did
assure the police that he would not commit the crime.
However, Tarasoff’s family sued the university and the
therapists, insisting that they should have warned Tarasoff
of the danger. The Tarasoff case has since been used as a
standard for therapists to warn a client’s potential victims.


Consequently, the Supreme Court of California stated ‘The
protective privilege ends where the public peril begins’
in other words, whenever conflicts arise, safety should
receive priority. California law now advocates that a
psychotherapist has a duty to warn a third party only if:
the therapist actually believed that the patient posed a
serious risk of inflicting serious bodily injury upon an
identifiable victim. The California Supreme Court has
also ruled that threats must be specific: Therapist does
not have to warn if the client makes non-specific threats
against non-specific people.
(http://education.ucsb.edu/csbyd/ED165/docs
/ED165-ethics-Oct-2008.pdf).


This limit to confidentiality has since been highlighted
in the APA Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code
of Conduct – Disclosure 4.05 states (b)
Psychologist may disclose confidential information-
(3) to protect the client/patient, psychologist,
or others from harm (http://www.apa.org/ethics
/code2002. html). This duty to warn refers to the
responsibility of a therapist to breach confidentiality
if a patient or other identifiable person is evidentially
in clear, imminent danger. The therapist must determine the
degree of gravity of the threat and notify the person in
danger and others who are in a position to protect that
person from harm. Psychologists must maintain
confidentiality and discuss limits of confidentiality
at outset. In John’s case (HIV ‘Assist Project) he could
change his informed consent in future research to include
the notification that confidentiality will not be
maintained if participants indicate that they have placed
an identified person at risk of harm.


Jane’s dilemma could now be eased based on the ethical
code of conduct in Disclosure 4.05. She should tell Amanda
the limits of confidentiality before beginning the
counselling sessions. In assessing Amanda, she should
determine the gravity of Amanda’s threat. Jane believed
Amanda’s plan is well thought out and this indicates that
the threat is serious and is not merely said in a fit of
anger. Moreover, the threat of ‘to kill’ is specific: not
to harm or to injure but ‘to kill’. Furthermore, the person
Amanda wants to kill is a specific person - the rapist. The
rapist is now clearly in imminent danger of losing his life.
Endorsed by Disclosure 4.05 Jane would not be accused of
breaching confidentiality, instead she has the
responsibility to warn the potential victim. In doing so
Jane could prevent an imminent tragedy from happening, she
would have saved a life (though the rapist deserved to be
punished but certainly not by death) and prevented
Amanda from being committed to a mental institute or a jail
term or a death sentence!


The debate whether patients with disorder need protection
from society or society needs protection from these patients
is endless. Resolving an ethical dilemma entails identifying
the pertinent values and evaluating those competing values.
There is no single, definite way of thinking about what it
means to be an ethical psychologist. Mental health
professionals must consider both individual and societal
rights and responsibilities. Confidentiality is required to
protect patient’s identity but more importantly is; in order
to protect the patient from committing an imminent
regrettable crime and to protect the potential victim from
a fatal situation; it is inevitable that in honouring the
duty to protect, the discerning psychologist must
serve his or her duty to warn.

(1552 words)




Reference
Barlow David. H. et Durand V. Mark., (2009). Abnormal Psychology, an integrative approach, USA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning

Reethompson .Psychological Therapy and Confidentiality. Retrieved 5 February 2009 http://www.allfreeessays.com/essays/Confidentiality-Mental-Health/6458.html

APA Assembly. Confidentiality, Disclosure, and Protection of Others. Retrieved 5 February 2009
http://www.psych.org/Resources/OfficeofHIVPsychiatry/HIVPolicy/PolicyStatements.aspx

2002 American Psychological Association. Ethical Principles of psychologist. Retrieved 5 February 2009 http://www.apa.org/ethics/code2002.html